# Hands-On DLang

## Setup

### Installing DMD and DUB

#### OS X

##### Installing with Homebrew (recommended)

```bash
brew install dmd
brew install dub
```

##### Installing locally using the install script

```bash
curl -fsS https://dlang.org/install.sh | bash -s dmd
echo "~/.dlang/dmd-2.079.0/activate" >> ~/.profile # Add dmd and dub to PATH on starting a bash shell
```

##### Installing using the installer

* Download http://downloads.dlang.org/releases/2.x/2.079.0/dmd.2.079.0.dmg.
* Open `dmd.2.079.0.dmg`
* Run `DMD2.pkg` (you might need to activate the “allow installing applications
  from unverified developers” option in your security settings) and install with
  the default settings.

#### Windows

* Download http://downloads.dlang.org/releases/2.x/2.079.0/dmd-2.079.0.exe.
* Run `dmd-2.079.0.exe` and install with the default settings (this will also
  install Visual Studio if you do not have it installed yet).

### Recommended editor setup

Visual Studio Code is the recommended editor, because it has the best D
integration at the moment. If you want to use another editor or IDE, that is
perfectly fine. However, instructions will only be provided for Visual Studio
Code.

#### Installation of Visual Studio Code

Download and install Visual Studio Code from here:
https://code.visualstudio.com/. OS X users can also install it using Homebrew:

```bash
brew tap caskroom/cask
brew cask install visual-studio-code
```

#### Extension setup

* Open the Extension view in the sidebar:
  |Operating system|Shortcut |
  |----------------|---------|
  |OS X|⌘ + ⇧ + X|
  |Windows|⌃ + ⇧ + X|
* Install the extension “D Programming Language (code-d)” (requires that git is
  installed).
* Restart Visual Studio Code.

## Basics

### Hello World

```D
import std.stdio;

void main() {
    writeln("Hello World");
}
```

### Imports and modules

D has the concept of _modules_ and _packages_.
By importing a certain module with the `import` statement, all public symbols
from module become available. The standard library, called Phobos, is located
in the `std` package. E.g. in order to import the `file` module from Phobos, you
would write:

```D
import std.file;
```

#### Selective imports

It is possible (and often good style) to import symbols selectively from a
module:

```D
import std.stdio: writeln, writefln;
```

#### Scoped imports

It is not necessary to place imports at the beginning of a file.
They can be located anywhere in the code.
If they appear inside a certain scope (delimited by braces), the imported
symbols are only available inside that scope. Here is an alternative version of
the hello world program:

```D
void main()
{
import std.stdio: writeln;
writeln("Hello World");
}
/* writeln is not available outside of the main function */
```

#### Imports match files and directories

The module system is entirely based on files.
E.g. `my.thing` refers to a file `thing.d` in the folder `my/`.

### Basic Types

D has the following basic types:

| Datatypes                       | Size                                                         |
| ------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------ |
| `bool`, `byte`, `ubyte`, `char` | 8-bit                                                        |
| `short`, `ushort`, `wchar`      | 16-bit                                                       |
| `int`, `uint`, `dchar`, `float` | 32-bit                                                       |
| `long`, `ulong`, `double`       | 64-bit                                                       |
| `real`                          | >= 64-bit (generally 64-bit, but 80-bit on Intel x86 32-bit) |

`char` represents UTF-8 characters, `wchar`represents UTF-16 characters, and
`dchar` represents UTF-32 characters.

#### Type conversion

For integer types, automatic type conversion is only allowed if no precision is
lost (e.g. `int` to `long`). All conversion between floating point types are
allowed (e.g. `double` to `float`).

Manual type conversion is achieved with the `cast` expression:

```D
long a = 1;
int b = cast(int) a;
```

#### Type properties

All types have a property `.init` to which variables of that type are
initialized, if they are not initialized explicitly. For integer types, this is
`0` and for floating point types it is `nan`.

Every type also has a `.stringof` property which yields its name as a string.

Integer types have some more properties:

| Property | Description                         |
| -------- | ----------------------------------- |
| `.max`   | The maximum value the type can hold |
| `.min`   | The minimum value the type can hold |

And so do floating point types:

| Property      | Description                                                 |
| ------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------- |
| `.max`        | The maximum value the type can hold                         |
| `.min_normal` | The smallest representable normalized value that is not `0` |
| `.nan`        | NaN value                                                   |
| `.infinity`   | Infinity value                                              |
| `.dig`        | number of decimal digits of precisions                      |
| `.mant_dig`   | number of bits in mantissa                                  |
| …             |                                                             |

#### Indexing

For indexing, usually the alias type `size_t` is used, which is large enough to
represent an offset into all addressable memory.

### Variable declarations

Variables are declared by writing the type followed by the variable name:

```D
int myVar;
```

They can also be explicitly initialized:

```D
int myVar = 42;
```

It is also possible to declare several variables at once:

```D
int myVar, someOtherVar;
```

D has automatic type deduction, so when explicitly initializing a variable, it
is not necessary to mention the type. Instead we can use the `auto` keyword:

```D
auto myVar = 42;
```

Here is a combination of the above notations:

```D
auto myInt = 42, myFloat = 4.2f;
```

### Mutability

Objects in D are mutable by default, but is possible to change this using
type qualifiers:

#### `immutable`

An object declared as `immutable` is enforced by the compiler to never change
its value.

```D
immutable int a;
a = 5; // error
```

`immutable` objects are implicitly shared accross threads, because the can never
change their value and thus race conditions are impossible.

#### `const`

`const` objects also can not be modified, but this is enforced only in the
current scope. This means, that the object could be modified from a different
scope. Both mutable and `immutable` objects implictly convert to `const`
objects:

```D
void foo(const char[] s)
{
    // Do something with s
}
// Both calls are valid, thanks to const
foo("abcd"); // a string is an immutable array of char
foo("abcd".dup); // dup creates a mutable copy
```

Both `immutable` and `const` are transitive, i.e. the apply recursively to all
subcomponents of a type they are applied to.

### Functions

The basic syntax for functions is very similar to C:

```D
int add(int lhs, int rhs) {
    return lhs + rhs;
}
```

#### Return type deduction

A functions return type can be defined to be `auto`.
In this case, the return type will be infered.
Multiple return statements are possible, but must return compatible types.

```D
auto add(int lhs, int rhs) { // returns `int`
    return lhs + rhs;
}

auto lessOrEqual(int lhs, int rhs) { // returns `double`
    if (lhs <= rhs)
        return 0;
    else
        return 1.0;
}
```

#### Default arguments

Those also work the same as in C and other languages:

```D
void plot(string msg, string color = "red") {
    /* ... */
}
plot("D rocks");
plot("D rocks", "blue");
```

#### Local functions

It is possible to define functions locally (even inside other functions).
Those functions are not visible outside their parents scope.

```D
void fun() {
    int local = 10;
    int fun_secret() {
        local++; // that's legal
    }
    /* … */
}
static assert(!__traits(compiles, fun_secret())); // fun_secret is not visible here
```

### Memory and pointers

D uses a garbage collector by default, but is also possible to do manual memory
management if needed.

D provides pointer types `T*` like in C:

```D
int a;
int* b = &a; // b contains address of a
auto c = &a; // c is int* and contains address of a
```

To allocate a new memory block on the garbage collected heap, use the `new`
operator:

```D
int* a = new int;
```

#### Memory safety

In general, pointer arithmetic like in C is allowed. This results in the usual
safety issues. To counter this, D defines 3 safety levels for functions:
`@safe`, `@trusted`, and `@system`. The default is `@system`, which gives no
safety guarantees. Functions annotated with `@safe` are only allowed to call
other `@safe` and `@trusted` functions and it is not possible to do pointer
arithmetic in them:

```D
void main() @safe {
    int a = 5;
    int* p = &a;
    int* c = p + 5; // error
}
```

`@trusted` functions are functions that are manually verified to provide an
`@safe` interface. They create a bridge between `@safe` code and dirty low-level
code. Only use them very carefully!

### Structs

One way to create custom data types in D is with `struct`s:

```D
struct Person {
    int age;
    int height;
}
```

Unless created with the `new` operator, `sturct`s are always constructed on the
stack and copied _by value_ in assignments and as parameters to function calls.

```D
auto p = Person(30, 180);
auto t = p; // copy
```

You can also define a custom constructor:

```D
struct Person {
    int age;
    int height;
    this(int age, int height) {
        this.age = age;
        this. height = height;
    }
}
```

#### Member functions

`struct`s can have member functions. By default, they are `public` and
accessible from outside. By marking them `private`, you can limit access to
functions in the same module (different from C++ / Java etc.!):

```D
struct Person {
    void doStuff() {
        /* … */
    }
    private void privateStuff() {
        /* … */
    }
}
auto p = Person();
p.doStuff(); // call method doStuff
p.privateStuff(); // forbidden
```

#### `const` member functions

Member functions declared const can not modify any members. They can be called
on `immutable` and `const` objects.

#### `static` member functions

They work basically the same as in C etc.

### Arrays

D has two types of arrays, static arrays and dynamic arrays. Both of them are
bounds checked unless this feature is explicitly switched of with the compiler
flag `--boundcheck=off`.

#### Static arrays

Static arrays are stored on he stack or in static memory, depending on where
they are defined. They have a fixed, compile-time known length. The length is
part of the type:

```D
int[8] arr;
```

#### Dynamic arrays

Dynamic arrays are stored on the heap and have a variabe length, which can
change during runtime. A dynamic array is created with the new expression:

```D
auto size = 8;
int[] arr = new int[size];
```

The type `int[]` is called a _slice_ of `int`. Slices will be explained in more
detail in the next section.

Creating multidimensional arrays is also easy:

```D
auto matrix = new int[3][3];
```

#### Array operations and properties

Array concatenation is done with the `~` operator, which creates a new dynamic
array.

Mathematical operations can be applied to whole arrays using a syntax like
`c[] = a[] + b[]`, for example. This adds all elements of `a` and `b` so that
`c[0] = a[0] + b[0]`, `c[1] = a[1] + b[1]`, etc. It is also possible to perform
operations on a whole array with a single value:

```D
a[] *= 2; // multiple all elements by 2
a[] %= 26; // calculate the modulo by 26 for all a's
```

These operations can be optimized by the compiler using _SIMD_ instructions.

Both static and dynamic arrays provide the property `.length`, which is
read-only for static arrays, but can be used in the case of dynamic arrays to
change its size dynamically. The property .dup creates a copy of the array.

When indexing an array through the `arr[idx]` syntax, a special `$` symbol
denotes an array's length. For example, `arr[$ - 1]` references the last element
and is a short form for `arr[arr.length - 1]`.

### Slices

Slices are object of the type `T[]`for any given type `T. Slices provide a
_view_ to a subset of an array.

A slice consists basically of two members:

```D
T* ptr;
size_t length;
```

As we have already seen in the previous section, we can get slices by
allocating a new dynamic array:

```D
auto arr = new int[5];
assert(arr.length == 5)
```

The slice does not own the memory, it is managed by the garbage collector. The
slice is just a view on the memory.

You can also get slices to already existing memory:

```D
auto arr = new int[5];
auto newArr = arr;
auto smallerViewArr = arr[1 .. 4]; // index 4 is not included
assert(smallerViewArr.length == 3);
assert(newArr.length == 5);
smallerViewArr[0] = 10;
assert(newArr[1] == 10 && arr[1] == 10);
```

Again, it is important to keep in mind, that this is only a view to memory. No
memory is copied.

### Alias and `string`s

By using the `alias` statement , we can create new “names” for existing types:

```D
alias string = immutable(char)[];
```

This works very similar to `typedef` from C / C++.

The above definition of `string` is atually the definition that is used by D.
This means that `string`s are just mutable slices of `immutable` `char`s.

### Control flow

#### if…else

Very similar to how it is defined in other languages:

```D
if (a == 5) {
    writeln("Condition is met");
} else if (a > 10) {
    writeln("Another condition is met");
} else {
    writeln("Nothing is met!");
}
```

#### switch…case

Also very similar to how it is defined in other languages, but for it works for
integer types, bools and strings (which will be covered later).

```D
string myString;
/* … */
switch(myString) {
    case "foo":
        writeln(`Cool, myString was "foo"`);
        break;
    default:
        writeln("Meh, myString was something boring");
        break;
}
```

For integer types, it is also possible to define ranges:

```D
int c = 5;
switch(c) {
    case 0: .. case 9:
        writeln(c, " is within 0-9");
        break; // necessary!
    case 10:
        writeln("A Ten!");
        break;
    default: // if nothing else matches
        writeln("Nothing");
        break;
}
```

#### Old fashioned loops

`while`-, `do`…`while`- and classical `for`-loops all work the same as in C++ /
Java etc.

##### Breaking out of outer loops

As usual, you can break out of a loop immediately by using the `break` keyword.
Additionally, you can also break out of outer loops by using labels:

```D
outer:
for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {
    for (int j = 0; j < 5; ++j) {
        /* … */
        break outer; // breaks out of the outer loop
    }
}
```

#### `foreach` loops

D has a `foreach` loops which allows for much better readable iterations.

##### Element iteration

We can easily iterate ofer slices using `foreach`:

```D
auto arr = new int[5];
foreach (e; arr) {
    writeln(e);
}
```

##### Access by reference

By default the elements are copied during the iteration. If we want _in-place_
modification, we can use the `ref` qualifier:

```D
auto arr = new int[5];
foreach (ref e; arr) {
    e = 5;
}
```

##### Iterate `n` times

It is easy to write iterations, which should be executed `n` times by using the
`..` syntax:

```D
foreach (i; 0 .. 3) {
    writeln(i);
}
// prints 0 1 2
```

##### Iteration with index counter

For slices, it's also possible to access a separate index variable:

```D
foreach (i, e; [4, 5, 6]) {
    writeln(i, ":", e);
}
// prints 0:4 1:5 2:6
```

### Ranges

Ranges are a very important concept for iteration in D. We can use `foreach`
loops, to iterate over ranges:

```D
foreach (element; range) {
    // Loop body
}
```

If we use `foreach` with a range, this gets lowered to the compiler to something
similar to this:

```D
for (auto __rangeCopy = range; !__rangeCopy.empty; __rangeCopy.popFront()) {
    auto element = __rangeCopy.front;
    // Loop body...
}
```

This leads us to what ranges (or more specific `InputRange`s) actually are:
Anything, that implements the member functions needed by the above lowering:

```D
interface InputRange(E) {
    bool empty() @property;
    E front() @property;
    void popFront();
}
```

However, ranges do not need to _implement_ such an interface in terms of
inheritance, they just have to provide the above member functions.
Typically, ranges are implemented as `struct`s (because most of the time, ranges
should be value types), but is also possible to implement them as `class`es,
which will be introduced later.

#### Laziness

Ranges are _lazy_. They won't be evaluated until requested. Hence, a range from
an infinite range can be taken:

```D
42.repeat.take(3).writeln; // [42, 42, 42]
```

#### Copying ranges

Copying a range by just using the assignment operator might not have the desired
effect, because iterationg over a range can be destructive (i.e. when the range
holds internal pointers and a deep copy would be necessary). “copyable” ranges
are called `ForwardRange`s. They need to implement a `.save` method which
returns a copy of the range:

```D
interface ForwardRange(E) : InputRange!E
{
    typeof(this) save();
}
```

#### `RandomAccessRange`s

A `RandomAccessRange` is a `ForwardRange` which has a know `length` for which
each element can be access directly:

```D
interface RandomAccessRange(E) : ForwardRange!E
{
     E opIndex(size_t i); // can access elements using range[i] syntax
     size_t length() @property;
}
```

Slices are the most prominent example of `RandomAccessRange`s in

#### Lazy range algorithms

The D standard library provides a huge arsenal of lazy range algorithm
functions. Most of them can be found in in the `std.range` and `std.algorithm`
packages.

### Associative arrays

D has builtin hashmaps, which are called _associative arrays_:

```D
int[string] map; // keys of type string, values of type int
map["key1"] = 10; // insertion or modification, if the key already exists
if ("key1" in map) { // checking if a key is in an associative array
    writeln("key1 is in map");
}
assert(map.length == 1); // associative arrays provide a .length property
map.remove("key1"); // remove a key from an associative array
```

### Classes

D's `class`es are very similar to Java's `class`es.

Any `class` type implicitely inherits from `Object`.

```D
class Foo { } // implicitely inherits from Object
class Bar : Foo { } // Bar inherits from Foo
```

`class`es are usually instantiated on the GC heap using `new`:

```D
auto bar = new Bar;
```

In contrast to `struct`s, `class`es are reference types:

```D
Bar bar = foo; // bar points to foo
```

#### Inheritance

If a member function of a base class if overwritten, the `override` keyword must
be used:

```D
class Bar: Foo {
    override void functionFromFoo() {}
}
```

Classes can only inherit from a single class

#### Final and abstract member functions

* A function can be marked `final` in a base class to disallow overriding it.
* A function can be declared as `abstract` to force derived classes to override
  it.
* A whole class can be declared as `abstract` to make sure that it isn't
  instantiated.
* `super(…)` can be used to explicitly call the base constructor.

#### Checking for identity

The `==` operator compares the content of two class objects. Checking for
identity is done using the `is` operator. Coparing to `null` is only possible
with this operator:

```D
MyClass c;
if (c == null)  // error
    /* … */
if (c is null)  // ok
    /* … */
```